Essay about Individualism in American History - 1470 Words

The Struggle to Be Unique Do you stand alone as a unique and special individual? Since the beginning of American history there have been struggles for individualism. The American Revolution, the American Civil War, and the separation from family life are all examples of individualism in American history. Individualism is an American paradigm designed by the modern societal structure that is an altered idea of the foundation by immigrants. In today’s society the struggle for individualism is more personal and represents how American values have shifted since the beginning of American history. Individualism in today’s society is the â€Å"belief that each person is unique, special, and a ‘basic unit of nature’.† The individualism concept puts an†¦show more content†¦The Virginia colony, the New World’s first colony was established as a â€Å"joint-stock company† colony and was run by the â€Å"House of Burgesses†. The House of Burgesses was the first legislative body to exist in the United States. More colonies continued to be founded based on the need of â€Å"[t]rade and profits† for the country where the colonists originally came from (American Colonies). The trend of establishing colonies continued until 1733 when the Georgia colony was established. The colonies were a way for people to break away from England or other European countries. These people started new lifestyles where they could freely practice their own religions. They made a living for themselves with limited interference from the country of origination. During this time in England, the Church of England was being led by Calvinists. The group known as the Puritans were â€Å"continuing to press for reforms of the Church of England along Calvinist lines† (Wilson). The tension between the two groups led a group known as the Separatists, who disagreed with the Church of England, to leave England and find a better life for themselves and their family. The example of colonization emphasizes individualism. People acted on their unique beliefs by doing what they felt was best for themselves and by openly ignoring what society expected of them. Each individual tookShow MoreRelatedThe Origin of Individualism1684 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction, the origin of American Individualism can be traced back to the beginning years in its history, when first American immigrants came to the North American continent looking for better life and shaking off they yoke of European feudal tradition and the oppression from all kinds of powerful classes. It is determined that there were elements of Anti-oppression and searching for freedom in American people’s character. This was the original explanation of American Individualism. Although the termRead MoreCritical Analysis of Alex de Tocquevilles Democracy in America1366 Words   |  6 Pagesa look at the American prison system. However, it was obvious from his writing that he looked at every aspect of American culture. In Democracy in America, he takes a look at how democracy works and the pitfalls that could bring about the downfall of democracy. Throughout his travels he noticed that private interest and personal gain motivated the actions of most Americans. He believed this cultivated a new concept, the concept of individualism. He believed this individualism was one of theRead MoreA Brief Note On Western Culture And Individualism1107 Words   |  5 PagesHistorical Framework: Individualism means that they are solely depending on that individual person (Ayn, 1). There is no â€Å"we† in the way that an individualist person would think (Culturematters.com). Western culture and individualism is derived from knowledge and emphasis on the individual person. Western culture is open to anyone in any race, cultural background, age, and gender. Therefore, history has changed itself throughout the years when it comes to the way we think. If you refer back toRead MoreAmeric Land Of The Free, And Home1411 Words   |  6 Pagessafe, and esteemed environment, when in reality the core values of America change as time goes by. Even though Americans often value individualism, patriotism, nationalism, and individual liberty, history has proven otherwise. Wars, social norms, rights restrictions, expectations and peer pressure have gotten in the way of the values that many believed highlighted America. The saying, ‘history repeats itself’ has haunted the future of America greatly. As the years go by, individual freedom is minimizedRead MoreResponse to Turners Essay on The Significance of the Frontier in American History501 Words   |  3 Pagesthe Frontier in American History Turners The Significance of the Frontier in American History essay presents the primary model for comprehending American history. Turner developed his notions on the uncovering of the 1890 census that the frontier was coming to an end, that the nation had occupied its continental borders. As Turner discusses in his essay, an extensive era of American development approached an ending, but left enduring marks on American society. A majorRead MoreA Metanarrative Is Described By Professor Worthington As1667 Words   |  7 PagesThese founding values, though sometimes in different form, are still prominent in today’s society. Four of these many core beliefs that created America’s metanarrative are individualism, work ethic, moral justification, and freedom. Individualism can be seen in America’s beginnings well before it was even a nation. Individualism can be defined as being â€Å"independent† or â€Å"self-reliant†. This can be seen in the Separatist’s physical and spiritual journey from England to Holland to the New World. TheyRead MoreThe Importance Of Cultural History On Culture1294 Words   |  6 Pages Assessing Cultural History People are born physically, socially, and culturally unaware. Instinct is an unlearned behavior that all species encounter. Humans are different than other creatures. Humans need social experiences from their culture to survive (Macionis, 2002-04). Humans are the only creatures that depend on culture instead of instinct to survive (Harris, 1987). Culture is something that has be learned. We are not born with culture, but however born into culture. We are not handed ourRead MoreAnalysis Of Our Divided Political Heart By John F. Kennedy Essay777 Words   |  4 Pagestalks about how American citizens cannot agree on who we are because we cannot agree on whom we have been. The American custom, Dionne expresses, points not to be self-sufficient and selfish, but to even out our compassion of individual freedom and our loyalty to the public. Understanding of our nation’s history, Dionne shows an insightful examination of how self-reliance is toxic to our present political ambience . He participates the Tea Party’s involvement with American history, but also showsRead MoreSelf-Reliance by Ralph Waldo Emerson: Non Conformity in Thought and Action1519 Words   |  7 Pagesreform in the early nineteenth-century in American history. A group of people including former Unitarian ministers made American transcendentalism started its transformation of the American intellect. These people wanted to reform the church because they saw it as a social religion which did not awake the individual’s realization of his own spirituality. These transcendentalists tried to urge their ideas of the significance of the self in spiritual life. American transcendentalism reached its peak inRead MoreQuestions On Managing Diverse Classrooms1050 Words   |  5 Pagesface greater cultural diversity in American classrooms today than in any time in our nation’s history. Today’s classroom are made up of students from Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, the Philippines, Me xico, Central and Latin America, China, the Caribbean, African and various others countries. Students and their parents enter our country seeking better education, and a stable economical rewards and political environment. Also, Latin American, African American and American Indians students born in the U S.

Ludwig van Beethoven The Musical Genius Essay - 1466 Words

Ludwig van Beethoven was the composer of the most celestial and significant music written at any time. He was the first musician to link the classical period of 18th-century and the novel birth of Romanticism. Beethoven’s absolute step forward in the world of music came in his instrumental work, not forgetting his symphonies. In contrast to his forerunner Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, for whom composing music seemed natural, Beethoven strived to make his work flawless. On December 16, 1770, Ludwig van Beethoven was born in Bonn, Germany; he was baptized on December 17, 1770. An authentic record of the birth date does not exist; however, what remains is the registry of his baptism at the Parish of Saint Regius in a Roman†¦show more content†¦Neefe was appointed Court Organist in the year of 1779. Roughly four years later, Neefe helped Beethoven compose his first piece of published composition: set of keyboard variations. Beethoven began working as Neefe’s assistant o rganist as a paid employee of a chapel managed by Andrea Luchesi. Beethoven’s first three piano sonatas, dedicated to Elector Maximilian Frederick, were published in 1783. Frederick became aware of Beethoven’s impeccable talent and financed and urged Beethoven’s to complete his musical studies. In 1787, Beethoven embarked on a journey to Vienna to, hopefully, study with Mozart. Soon after, when Beethoven’s mother fell severely ill he returned home. After his return, his mother succumbed to death which initiated severe alcoholism for his father. Thus, for the next five years, Beethoven was responsible for the care of his siblings. After the five years passed, he left his hometown for good and went Vienna to resume his studies with Joseph Haydn and soon after with Antonio Salieri. Beethoven most likely met Joseph Haydn in late 1790, when Beethoven was travelling to London. The Elector helped him move to Vienna approximately in 1792. From his trip to Londo n and his move to Vienna, Beethoven composed a large amount of composition that demonstrated his musical maturity. Musicologists recognized a theme comparable to his third symphony composed in 1791. In 1792, Beethoven left his hometown for Vienna upon hearing rumorsShow MoreRelatedThe Music Of Ludwig Van Beethoven1600 Words   |  7 PagesLudwig van Beethoven is known for much of his musical accomplishments. One of his most famous is that he is deaf and yet one of the best musical composers of the classical and romanic area. Beethoven has always been one of my personal favorite composers. When I grew up and started taking piano, Beethoven s Fur Elise was my first large classical piece. Ever since that point on I insisted that when we were in Germany we see his home, and that we did. In this essay I will be explaining Ludwigs YouthRead MoreThe Music Of Ludwig Van Beethoven900 Words   |  4 PagesLudwig van Beethoven All throughout music history lived many composers that have impacted not only the societies in which they have lived in, but modern-day society as well. These particular composers have given many societies the chance to listen, feel and express themselves through music and instruments that were invented centuries ago that still remain essential components of music today. One example of a composer that changed the music world drastically was a man by the name of Ludwig van BeethovenRead MoreLudwig Van Beethoven, Composer Of All Time, And For Good Reason1459 Words   |  6 PagesLudwig van Beethoven is perhaps the most well known composer of all time, and for good reason. Born in the Classical era, Beethoven composed music that people could connect to and feel in a way that they had never experienced before. Beethoven was a great musical innovator as a result of his work as a composer, his assistance in the transition from the Classical era to the Romantic era of music, and his famou s Ninth Symphony. Ludwig van Beethoven was born on either December 16th or 17th in the yearRead MoreMusic Compare and Contrast1570 Words   |  7 Pageshave it easy. Neither did Ludwig van Beethoven who grew to be one of the most successful composers of all time. Taking in the world and challenges around them, both of these artists overcame many obstacles to become what they are known for. Their fans have followed and have been inspired by them. The band Thirty Seconds to Mars and Ludwig van Beethoven came from two different eras and have rough times in their youth but overcame to succeed in the music world. â€Å"[Ludwig] Beethoven’s father, JohannRead MoreThe Life And Works Of Ludwig Van Beethoven1016 Words   |  5 PagesLife and Works of Ludwig van Beethoven What you are, you are by accident of birth; what I am, I am by myself. There are and will be a thousand princes; there is only one Beethoven (Beethoven, Favorite Classical Composers). This quote by Ludwig van Beethoven shows just how confident of a composer he was. When people to day think of Beethoven they may think of some of his famous works such as Missa solemnis, his Ninth Symphony, or his Pastoral Symphony. Other people may see Beethoven as a deaf composerRead MoreLudwig Van Beethoven, Pianist And Composer1197 Words   |  5 Pages10-15-14 Ludwig Van Beethoven Ludwig Van Beethoven, a widely known pianist and composer, was born on about December 16, 1770 in Bonn, Germany. He was baptized on December 17, 1770. The actual date of his birth is unknown, but because most babies were baptized within 24 hours of birth, December 16 was his most likely birthdate. Beethoven, however, insisted that he was born 2 years later. Although he was presented with official papers of his birth, he still stubbornly objected. Beethoven had twoRead MoreLudwig Van Beethoven: A Biography1318 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Beethoven Ludwig van Beethoven is considered by many to be the best and most influential composer of all time. His imminence as a composer becomes even more remarkable when one considers the fact that he suffered severe hearing loss for much of his life and was totally deaf for the last decade of his life; the same time that he was composing some of his best-known and most highly regarded works. In order to understand how a man who could not hear the music he was creating became one of theRead MoreComposer Report: Ludwig Van Beethoven Essay1359 Words   |  6 PagesComposer report: Ludwig van Beethoven On 17 December 1770, Ludwig van Beethoven was born. He was an amazing and great classical musical composer. He is known for being the most famous composer of the classical and romantic periods of music. According to the â€Å"Enjoyment of Music† manual, Beethoven was born in Bohn, Germany. His father, with his grandfather, was the two singers at the court of a local prince, Friedrich Max. (Forney and Machlis 197). Beethoven began to take an interest in music fromRead MoreThe History Of Ludwig Van Beethoven2152 Words   |  9 PagesThe History of Ludwig Van Beethoven One of the world’s most fascinating classical German music composers, Ludwig Van Beethoven was more than just a man playing on the piano. Famous for more than just writing the piece Fà ¼r Elise that most of us all know. He composed many songs with a force that not just every musician has; musical emotion. Each of his pieces captured and held a story about Beethoven. Did you know Beethoven was deaf? How could a composer, a musician, a musical genius, lack such anRead MoreEssay about Life of Ludwig van Beethoven1182 Words   |  5 PagesLife of Ludwig van Beethoven Ludwig van Beethoven, also known as â€Å" The General of Musicians,† was born on December 16, 1770. However, this date is not exact because it is believed that Beethoven’s father lied about his son’s age in order to portray him as an infant prodigy. As a result, Beethoven is convinced he was born on December 16, 1772 at the Rheingasse home, which belonged to the Fischers, who were close friends of the family (Orga 8). Johann van and Maria Magdalena Beethoven

Review The House of the Spirits Free Essays

In the novel, â€Å"The House of the Spirits†, the author, Isabel Allende uses the symbolism of the house on the corner and the viewpoints of Esteban and Clara’s notebooks to show the reader that in order to understand the history of the Trueba family, multiple viewpoints must be taken into consideration. Through the use of symbolism, the house on the corner is representative of the Trueba’s history and how the family’s history is told through dichotomy. The house has two structures that must be observed in order to understand the entire home, one being inspired by Esteban, and the other being inspired by Clara. We will write a custom essay sample on Review: The House of the Spirits or any similar topic only for you Order Now The structure that Esteban builds is the outside and the foundation of the house. Esteban builds a â€Å"cubic, dense, pompous house, which sits like a hat amidst its green and geometric surroundings†(92). This description represents how he tells his stories of history in the novel. Esteban doesn’t use magical realism, he has much less narration in comparison to Clara in the novel, and his writing is straightforward. The way Esteban is portrayed proves the exterior of the house to be representative of his narration as it is â€Å"cubic† and â€Å"dense†. In contrast, Clara’s narration from her notebooks is much different from Esteban’s simple narration like the structure of the house. Clara doesn’t talk solely about important events, â€Å"she also records trivialities† (1) and incidents that do not necessarily lead to anything. Clara’s peculiar and magical narration style is represented by the infrastructure of the house, â€Å"full of protuberances and incrustations, of twisted staircases that lead to empty spaces, of turrets, or small windows and could not be opened, doors hanging in midair, and crooked hallways† (92). The two narrations make up the entire Trueba history the same way the infrastructure and the outside make up the entire house. Each story is told in a different style to symbolize the structure of the house. Esteban’s part in the creation of the exterior of the house is clean and dense which parallels the way he tells history. In contrast Clara’s narration is more detailed, superfluous and includes the nuanced stories of the characters. Together, the exterior and interior make up the house, just as the two narrations make up the novel and the history of the Truebas. With only one narrator, Clara or Esteban speaking at a time, the story of the Trueba family becomes skewed and unreliable due to Esteban’s personal bias and Clara’s magical point of view. With both histories presented the reader understands a more accurate and complete story. Allende uses the dichotomy of the house on the corner as a symbol to show that there are multiple sides to history. We also see two sides of history through Clara’s notebooks and Esteban’s narration. With two narrations we get a comprehensive vision of history that can only be obtained by reading multiple perspectives. One way that Allende uses the narrations to show that understanding multiple viewpoints is necessary, is through the unreliability of the narrator. At the beginning of the novel we first experience magical realism when Clara’s Uncle Marcos leaves the country on a â€Å"bird† that he builds and â€Å"[a]gainst all logic, on the second try the bird lifts off without mishap and with a certain elegance, accompanied by the creaking of its skeleton and the roar of its motor. Flapping its wings and disappearing into the clouds†(13). We are unaware of what actually occurred in this event because we only see one perspective of what happened. Once both narrators’ are used in the novel, the reader is able to see more than one perspective of the events told and the reader is able to see the entire history, just like the exterior and the infrastructure of the house on the corner make up the entire house. Esteban’s narration is biased and unreliable, but through the use of Clara’s notebooks we see the other side to Esteban’s time at Tres Marias as the patron. When Esteban recalls his leadership at Tres Marias he says, â€Å"no ones going to convince me that I wasn’t a good patron†(51) and that he has â€Å"been a good patron; there’s no doubt about it†(54). Shortly after, we hear from Clara’s notebooks of how â€Å"[n]ot a girl passed from puberty to adulthood that [Esteban] did not subject to the woods, the riverbank, or the wrought-iron bed†(63). If the reader only heard Esteban’s narration, the reader would have only seen that he â€Å"rebuilt chicken coops and stables†, â€Å"rescued the oil fields†, and planned â€Å"an irrigation system so the crops wouldn’t have to depend on the weather†(53). During his narration the reader sees all the positive things that he did, but with Clara’s notebooks the reader also sees the negative aspects of his time at Tres Marias. Along with seeing different events that occurred with multiple narrations we also see the feelings of multiple characters. When Clara first arrives at Tres Marias â€Å"she feels that she has finally discovered her mission in life†(105). While the reader understands her motivation, Esteban is unaware that she has this drive to fulfill her mission in life. Esteban thinks she is just â€Å"charitable and generous† and wants to make â€Å"those around her happy-except [Esteban]†(178). Due to the telling of two narratives in the history of the Trueba family we are able to see the relationship dynamics from both sides, and as a result, understand the Trueba family history better. In conclusion, Isabel Allende wrote the novel in a certain way to show the reader a different view of how history could be learned. She used the symbol of the house to show that to see the history there are various perspectives to understand just as there are various structures that make up the entire house. Allende wrote the novel through the perspective of Clara, Esteban, and others, so the reader is able to get the most comprehensive telling of the Trueba family history, and can see multiple sides in order to obtain the best understanding. How to cite Review: The House of the Spirits, Papers

Criminal Law free essay sample

Kristin Mildenberger Abstract Criminal law is very important to the criminal justice system. Criminal law states what behavior is criminal and it gives the punishment for each crime. In this document the sources and purposes of criminal law will be discussed. The jurisdiction information will be explained in order to show how it determines where the laws are enforced and created. The differences in the adversarial system and standard of proof within criminal cases will be explored.The differences between criminal liability and accomplice liability will be evaluated. The definitions of inchoate offenses for example, solicitation, conspiracy and contempt will be determined. Also, these terms will be compared to elements of additional criminal offenses. Criminal Law Evaluation Paper Criminal law encompasses â€Å"rules and regulations that defines and specifies punishments for offenses of a public nature or for wrongs committed against the state or society† (Schmalleger, 2010). Within the umbrella of criminal law are more specific types of different law. We will write a custom essay sample on Criminal Law or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page For instance, there is natural law, positive law, common law which all defines a specific type of crime an individual can commit and explanation to why it is considered a law. There are different degrees when it comes to punishment for violating a criminal law as well. In order for a person to be punished for committing a crime regarding the criminal law there must be two things present which will also be discussed. There are also offenses that are listed under criminal law as a certain type of offense and certain type of crime due to who or what is violated.Properties of criminal law include natural law, positive law and common law. Natural law is described as rule â€Å"of conduct inherent in human nature and in natural order, which are thought to be knowable through intuition, inspiration, and the exercise of reason without the need to refer to man-made laws† (Schmalleger, 2010). On the other hand, positive law is forced by the government for everyone to obey (Schmalleger, 2010). In order for the law to be a positive law it must be formed and applied so that it is acceptable by most people (Schmalleger, 2010).Common law is geared toward custom and usage for instance, nonstatutory customs, ways of life and examples that help steer the decisions of the judicial system (Schmalleger, 2010). The purpose of criminal law is to catch those individual’s that break the law and may harm other people. Not only does criminal law show individuals what they have done wrong but it also states what the punishment will be if the law is broken. Criminal law not only punishes the accused but it also offers protection through the judicial system that punishes and controls (Federation Press. om. , n. d. ). Three purposes of criminal law are for the protection of the offender, punishment and protection of the community (Federation Press. com. , n. d. ). When discussing criminal law an individual must know how jurisdiction plays a major role in how criminal law is enforced and created. The definition of jurisdiction is a specific geographic area where a law enforcement agent can exercise his or her authority. It means that a particular group or department in the criminal justice system has legal power.In order for a person to be punished by law enforcement professional, the act must have occurred within the law enforcement professional’s jurisdiction. Those that make the laws for a specific area or jurisdiction create laws in regards to the criminal law. If there is an act that will harm the community those of the judicial system within the jurisdiction will create the law that will protect the community. In criminal law the prosecution must use a certain degree of information in order to prove an individual’s guilt.There are two different ways to prove a defendant’s guilt in criminal law depending on the system that is used. In a criminal case it is the prosecution’s responsibility to prove the defendant’s guilt, the defense does not have the burden of proof and does not have to defend his or her position at all. An adversarial system is where two campaigners for instance, prosecutor and defense attorney, represent his or her client’s position in front of a group or individual that is impartial for example, a judge or a jury (Schmalleger, 2010).When proving a case against a defendant a prosecutor must meet the standard of proof. The three standards of proof are beyond a reasonable doubt, clear and convincing evidence and preponderance of evidence (Schmalleger, 2010). Beyond a reasonable doubt is the standard of proof needed for a conviction in a cr iminal case. Beyond a reasonable doubt means that the prosecution has to prove with high certainty that the defendant did commit the crime, but it does not have to prove the action was written wit a hundred percent certainty. Another burden of proof that is used in a criminal case is clear and convincing evidence.

Zavier Bacote Essays (288 words) - Criminal Law, Crime, Ethics

Zavier Bacote CJC 111 Dr.Pia Duncan 22 January 2018 Reflection Paper The crime control and due process model are two models that were written by a man named Herbert Packer in 1964, he wrote the models to explain the criminal justice system. The crime control model is an approach to crime that helps mainly society from criminals that commit a very harsh crime. This model also speeds up the court process and the sentencing. The crime control model is a good system sometimes when trying to put horrible criminals of the street where they can't harm anyone anymore, but like everything the system has flaws. The crime control system could put low crime individuals in prison, and it is causing jails to be overpopulated with criminals and that can cause many problems with sending criminals to non-packed prisons. The due process model in another model but this model helps the criminals instead of helping to society with criminal issues. This model follows a tenet that defendants are innocent until proven guilty. This model also uses ways to rehabilitate offenders instead of sentencing them or punishing them. This model helps criminals go back in society to help them function. The due process model has many obstacles in it, one is not sentencing the criminals that need to be punished and it causes many people to disagree and protest. I would follow the crime control model because yes it has many flaws it sentence some of the prisoners that need to be punished and I would rather that happen then wrongful sentencing. The U.S doesn't follow such models, they aren't represented by a all-encompassing institution.

Labor Unions Functions

Labor Unions Functions The basic building block of labor union is identified as the need for collective bargain and increased negotiation power. Labor unions are responsible for overseeing and formulating political ideology of the laborers, and if need be, mediate jurisdictional conflicts among members.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Labor Unions Functions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Besides, it is entrusted with the mandate of negotiating collective bargain treaties besides mobilizing workers in organized groups in addition to reaching out the uns of inelastic products include cigarettes, alcohol and gas. Irrespective of the price, consumers the consumers will continue using these products since they don’t have substitutes. Besides, their use depends on the consumer preference rather than market forces. For instance, an increase in the prices of cigarette will not make smokers reduce their consumption of the product. The New Welfare Reform Act The overall change in welfare for a household consumption is expressed in monetary terms. The overall net effect is an increase in welfare as part of the real changes in the income position of the target. Real consumption function and GDP are critical towards understanding dependence of one variable to another in calculating deflator effect of the welfare reforms. Generally, these concepts are vital in forecasting and act as a guide towards actualizing household consumption behaviour over a period of time. The welfare reform policy has been an important tool for solving income inequality problem in America trying to regulate income disparity through use direct taxes such as income and sales tax redistribution. Therefore, legislations within the new welfare reform act have created a favorable taxing system to the poor to help reduce income disparity. There is increasing number of people living in poverty. The new welfare reform act of has substantially reversed the trend by solving the income inequality problem through empowering people in the low income earning bracket.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Labor Unions Functions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Besides, the nation is in the process of being empowered to end the vicious cycle. This empowerment has been made possible injection of resources and capital to the low income bracket of the economy. In addition, the reform has made the welfare dependency and wordlessness better off since the act promotes personal and work responsibility. Thus, it is apparent that the new reform act is working and is geared towards success.

5 Pillars of Archaeological Method

5 Pillars of Archaeological Method I was horrified at hearing of the rough shoveling out of the contents and protested that the earth ought to be pared away inch by inch to see all that was in it, and how it lay. WM Flinders Petrie, describing how he felt at eight years of age, on seeing the excavation of a Roman villa. Between 1860 and the turn of the century, five basic pillars of scientific archaeology were enunciated: the ever growing importance of stratigraphic excavation; the significance of the small find and plain artifact; the diligent use of field notes, photography and plan maps to record excavation processes; the publication of results; and the rudiments of cooperative excavation and indigenous rights. The Big Dig Undoubtedly the first move in all of these directions included the invention of the big dig. Up until that point, most excavations were haphazard, driven by the recovery of single artifacts, generally for private or state museums. But when Italian archaeologist Guiseppe Fiorelli [1823-1896] took over the excavations at Pompeii in 1860, he began excavating entire room blocks, keeping track of stratigraphic layers, and preserving many features in place. Fiorelli believed that the art and artifacts were of secondary importance to the real purpose for excavating Pompeiito learn about the city itself and all its inhabitants, rich and poor. And, most critical for the growth of the discipline, Fiorelli began a school for archaeological methods, passing along his strategies to Italians and foreigners alike. It cant be said that Fiorelli invented the concept of the big dig. German archaeologist Ernst Curtius [1814-1896] had been attempting to amass funds for an extensive excavation since 1852, and by 1875 began excavating at Olympia. Like many sites in the classical world, the Greek site of Olympia had been the subject of much interest, especially its statuary, which found its way into museums all over Europe. When Curtius came to work at Olympia, it was under the terms of a negotiated deal between the German and Greek governments. None of the artifacts would leave Greece (except for duplicates). A small museum would be built on the grounds. And the German government could recoup the costs of the big dig by selling reproductions. The costs were indeed horrific, and German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was forced to terminate the excavations in 1880, but the seeds of cooperative scientific investigations had been planted. So had the seeds of political influence in archaeology, which were to profoundly affect the young science during the early years of the 20th century. Scientific Methods The real increases in techniques and methodology of what we think of as modern archaeology were primarily the work of three Europeans: Schliemann, Pitt-Rivers, and Petrie. Although Heinrich Schliemanns [1822-1890] early techniques are today often disparaged as not much better than a treasure-hunter, by the latter years of his work at the site of Troy, he took on a German assistant, Wilhelm DÃ ¶rpfeld [1853-1940], who had worked at Olympia with Curtius. DÃ ¶rpfelds influence on Schliemann led to refinements in his technique and, by the end of his career, Schliemann carefully recorded his excavations, preserved the ordinary along with the extraordinary, and was prompt about publishing his reports. A military man who spent a great deal of his early career studying the improvement of British fire-arms, Augustus Henry Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers [1827-1900] brought military precision and rigor to his archaeological excavations. He spent a not-inconsiderable inheritance building the first extensive comparative artifact collection, including contemporary ethnographic materials. His collection was decidedly not for beautys sake; as he quoted T.H. Huxley: The word importance ought to be struck out of scientific dictionaries; that which is important is that which is persistent. Chronological Methods William Matthew Flinders Petrie [1853-1942], known most for the dating technique he invented known as seriation or sequence dating, also held high standards of excavation technique. Petrie recognized the inherent problems with large excavations, and assiduously planned them out ahead of time. A generation younger than Schliemann and Pitt-Rivers, Petrie was able to apply the basics of stratigraphic excavation and comparative artifact analysis to his own work. He synchronized the occupation levels at Tell el-Hesi with Egyptian dynastic data, and was able to successfully develop an absolute chronology for sixty feet of occupational debris. Petrie, like Schliemann and Pitt-Rivers, published his excavation findings in detail. While the revolutionary concepts of archaeological technique advocated by these scholars gained acceptance slowly around the world, there is no doubt that without them, it would have been a much longer wait. Sources A bibliography of the history of archaeology has been assembled for this project. History of Archaeology Part 1: The First ArchaeologistsPart 2: The Effects of the EnlightenmentPart 3: Is the Bible Fact or Fiction?Part 4: The Astounding Effects of Orderly MenPart 5: The Five Pillars of Archaeological Method Bibliography